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Wichtiger Eckpunkt des EU-Pakets vom 23.1.2008 zur Realisierung der 20-20-20-Ziele ist die Erhöhung des Anteils erneuerbarer Energien (REN) mittels einer Richtlinie, die national umzusetzen ist. Hierzu liegt ein Entwurf vor. Auch wenn es noch Auseinandersetzungen um die Alternative eines EU-weiten einheitlichen Systems auf Basis eines Quoten-/Zertifikatehandels versus nationaler Fördersysteme gibt, ist davon auszugehen, dass letztlich eine Koexistenz der EEG-artigen und der Quoten-Ansätze auf mitgliedstaatlicher Ebene möglich sein wird. Vor diesem Hintergrund wird im Folgenden nach innovativen Optionen gefragt, die die neue Rechtslage auf EU-Ebene für die mitgliedstaatliche Umsetzung bietet.
Angewandte Systemanalyse
(2008)
Toothless tiger? : Is the EU action plan on energy efficiency sufficient to reach its target?
(2007)
Motivated by, inter alia, the increasing energy prices, the security of energy supply and climate change, the new EU "Action Plan for Energy Efficiency: Realising the Potential" (EEAP), sets out the policies and measures required to be implemented over the next six years to achieve the EU's goal of reducing annual primary energy consumption by about 20 % by 2020. By increasing energy efficiency, the security of energy supply and the reduction of carbon emissions are also improved.
The paper will analyse the 20 % target of the new EEAP for the energy demand side by comparison with different recent energy scenarios for the EU. It will therefore review the recommended policies and measures and examine, in which energy demand sectors energy efficiency may be increased and to which extend. The main focus is whether the recommended policies and actions will be sufficient and which additional measures may be useful, if additional measures are needed.
The Russian natural gas industry is the world's largest producer and transporter of natural gas. This paper aims to characterize the methane emissions from Russian natural gas transmission operations, to explain projects to reduce these emissions, and to characterize the role of emissions reduction within the context of current GHG policy. It draws on the most recent independent measurements at all parts of the Russian long distance transport system made by the Wuppertal Institute in 2003 and combines these results with the findings from the US Natural Gas STAR Program on GHG mitigation options and economics.
With this background the paper concludes that the methane emissions from the Russian natural gas long distance network are approximately 0.6% of the natural gas delivered. Mitigating these emissions can create new revenue streams for the operator in the form of reduced costs, increased gas throughput and sales, and earned carbon credits. Specific emissions sources that have cost-effective mitigation solutions are also opportunities for outside investment for the Joint Implementation Kyoto Protocol flexibility mechanism or other carbon markets.
Ziel - In diesem Beitrag sollen die mit der Erdgasbereitstellung für den deutschen Markt verbundenen Treibhausgasemissionen entlang der gesamten Prozesskette dargestellt werden, um eine Gesamtbewertung der mit seiner Nutzung verbundenen Treibhausgasemissionen und einen Vergleich mit den entsprechenden Emissionen anderer Energieträger zu ermöglichen. Dabei werden die in bis 2030 zu erwartenden dynamischen Veranderungen sowohl der Gasherkunft, als auch der Technik bei Förderung, Aufbereitung und Transport detailliert berücksichtigt. Ein besonderer Schwerpunkt liegt auf den Emissionen der Erdgasbereitstellung aus Russland, das seine Rolle als führender Erdgaslieferant ggf. noch weiter ausbauen wird.
Ergebnisse und Diskussion - Die Analysen dieses Beitrags zeigen, dass sich die Bezugsstrukturen für Erdgas in den nächsten zwei Jahrzehnten signifikant verändern werden. Die Förderung in der EU wird deutlich zurückgehen und der Anteil russischen und norwegischen Erdgases sowie von verflüssigtem Erdgas LNG (z.B. aus Algerien und Ägypten) wird zunehmen. Obwohl hierdurch die Emissionssituation potentiell ungünstiger wird, können steigende Emissionen durch die erforderlichen umfangreichen Investitionen teilweise kompensiert werden, weil ältere und ineffizientere Technik durch den aktuellen Stand der Technik ausgetauscht wird. Im Ergebnis werden sich die gegenläufigen Trends in etwa aufheben und die Treibhausgasemissionen der Erdgasbereitstellung - je nach Investitionsumfang - leicht sinken, d.h. bei etwa 12% der direkten Treibhausgasemissionen liegen. Für die beiden hier berechneten Szenarien-Varianten wird eine Senkung der gesamten Vorketten-Emissionen des in Deutschland genutzten Gases von rund 23 Mio. t CO2-Äquivalent (2005) auf 19,5 bzw. 17,6 Mio. t CO2-Äquivalente bis 2030 angenommen. Bei der ersten Variante können trotz steigenden Gasverbrauchs die Emissionen mittels technischer Verbesserungen reduziert werden, während bei der zweiten Variante der erhebliche Rückgang des Gasimports Hauptgrund für die Emissionsreduktion ist.
Schlussfolgerungen - Derzeit liegen die indirekten Treibhausgasemissionen der Erdgasbereitstellung etwa auf dem Niveau der anderen fossilen Energieträger, Öl und Steinkohle. Beim Erdgas wird diese Höhe in den nächsten Jahrzehnten sogar stark absinken, wenn die großen Optimierungspotentiale konsequent umgesetzt werden. Allerdings sind für die Sicherstellung der Erdgasversorgung umfangreiche Investitionen erforderlich. Diese sollten mit der aus Emissionssicht jeweils best verfügbaren - und damit langfristig auch wirtschaftlichsten - Technik erfolgen. Erdgas wird unter diesen Voraussetzungen auch in Zukunft - als relativ sauberer fossiler Energieträger - eine wichtige Übergangsfunktion zur regenerativen Energieversorgung übernehmen können.
Iran is one of the largest oil producers and natural gas owners globally. However, it has to struggle with domestic energy shortages, economic losses through energy subsidisation and inefficient energy infrastructures. Furthermore, GHG and other energy related emissions are rapidly increasing and posing a growing threat to local environment as well as global climate. With current trends prevailing, Iran may even become a net energy importer over the next decades. Resource allocation is therefore a crucial challenge for Iran: domestic consumption stands versus exports of energy.
The energy transformation sector clarifies Iran's dilemma: soaring electricity demand leads to blackouts, and power plant new builds are far from using most efficient technologies (e. g. CHP), therefore keeping energy intensive structures. But fossil fuels could be sold on international markets if spared by having more efficient energy infrastructures.
As shown by the high energy intensity of its economy, Iran has large potentials for energy saving and efficiency. In order to highlight and better identify this potential the paper contrasts a high efficiency scenario in all sectors of energy transformation and consumption with a possible "business as usual" development.
Using a bottom-up approach, the analysis provides a sector-by-sector perspective on energy saving potentials. These can be utilised on the demand side especially in the transport sector (fuels) and in households (electricity for appliances, natural gas for heating). Electricity generation bears efficiency potentials as well.
We conclude that Iran, but also the international community, would benefit on various levels from a more energy-efficient Iranian economy: Energy exports could increase, generating more foreign currency and reducing the pressures on international oil and gas prices; energy consumption would decrease, leading to lower needs for nuclear energy and for subsidies to Iranian people, as well as to a reduction of the high external costs entailed by fossil fuels combustion (smog in cities, environmental stress).
Based on a comprehensive scenario analysis of the EU's GHG emissions by 2020, we show that the 20% energy savings target set in the Action Plan "Doing more with less" in 2006 is still the most significant and thus indispensable strategy element within an ambitious EU climate and energy strategy targeting at a 30% reduction of GHG emissions by 2020.
The scenario analysis provides a sector by sector projection of potential future energy use and GHG emissions, combined with a detailed policy analysis of the core policies on energy efficiency by the EU and its Member States taken from current research results by the authors and others.
Consequently the paper identifies and quantifies the current implementation deficit in the EU and shows that, despite of sufficient targets, implementation is still significantly lacking in almost all fields of energy efficiency. Some, e.g. transport sector and buildings, are still substantially far from receiving the necessary political impetus. The paper also demonstrates co-benefits of a strong energy efficiency strategy, e.g. the achievability of the targets of the RES directive, which crucially depends on a strong efficiency policy.
We conclude that the efforts of the energy efficiency policy of the EU and its Member States have to be significantly intensfied. As proposed by the EU in case that other developed and key developing countries take up comparable targets in order to fulfil its role in the climate and energy strategy. To achieve this, we offer an analysis of the current weaknesses of EU energy efficiency policy and derive recommendations on how the EU can still reach its targets for 2020.
Using natural gas for fuel releases less carbon dioxide per unit of energy produced than burning oil or coal, but its production and transport are accompanied by emissions of methane, which is a much more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide in the short term. This calls into question whether climate forcing could be reduced by switching from coal and oil to natural gas. We have made measurements in Russia along the world's largest gas-transport system and find that methane leakage is in the region of 1.4%, which is considerably less than expected and comparable to that from systems in the United States. Our calculations indicate that using natural gas in preference to other fossil fuels could be useful in the short term for mitigating climate change.