Zukünftige Energie- und Industriesysteme
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Energy used in buildings is responsible for more than 40% of energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the EU and their share in cost-efficient GHG mitigation potentials is estimated to be even higher. In spite of its huge savings potential of up to 80%, achievements are very slow in the building sector and much stronger political action seems to be needed. One important step in this direction has been the recast of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) in autumn 2009. However, strong national implementation including powerful packages of flanking measures seems to be crucial to really make significant progress in this important field. In order to directly improve political action, we provide a differentiated country-by-country bottom up simulation of residential buildings for the whole EU, Norway, Iceland, Croatia and Liechtenstein. The analysis provides a database of the building stock by construction periods, building types, as well as typical building sizes. It includes a simulation of the thermal quality and costs of the components of the building shell for new buildings as well as the refurbishment of the existing building stock. Based on this differentiated analysis, we show in detail what would be needed to accelerate energy savings in the building sector and provide a more precise estimate of the potentials to be targeted by particular policies. We demonstrate, e.g. that the potential of building codes set via the EPBD would be located mainly in those countries that already have quite stringent codes in place. We show as well the high relevance of accelerating refurbishments and re-investment cycles of buildings. By providing a clear estimate of the full costs related to such a strategy, we highlight a major obstacle to accelerated energy-efficient building renovation and construction.
In 1990 a sovereign wealth fund was founded in Norway in which the country invests surpluses from oil and gas industry sales. The fund is designed to secure the state's ability to act in a post-petroleum era. At the end of the 1990's the voice of Norwegian civil society insisted that the sovereign wealth fund should not only ensure intergenerational justice, but should also contribute to the implementation of values and norms of the present country. At the end of 2004 the parliament finally agreed upon ethical regulations for the investment of the sovereign wealth fund. Now the second largest sovereign wealth fund in the world only invests in businesses that adhere to those ethical regulations. In the present paper, I seek to illustrate the emergence and outcomes of this new development in the Norwegian sovereign wealth fund.
A promising candidate that may follow conventional vehicles with internal combustion engines combines hydrogen from regenerative sources of energy, fuelcells and an electric drive train. For early fleets introduced the refuelling infrastructure needs to be in place at least to the extent of the vehicles operational reach. The question arises which strategies may help to keep initial hydrogen and infrastructure cost low? Industrial production, distribution and use of hydrogen is well-established and the volumes handled are substantial. Even though today's industrialhydrogen is not in tune with the long-term sustainable vision, hydrogen production and infrastructure already in place might serve as a nucleus for putting that vision into practice. This contribution takes stock of industrial production and use of hydrogen in North Rhine-Westphalia based on a recently finalized project. It demonstrates to which extent industrial hydrogen could be used for a growing number of vehicles and at which time additional capacity might need to be installed.
Scientization : putting global climate change on the scientific agenda and the role of the IPCC
(2010)
Since the 1970s, climate change has dominated the international scientific and political agenda. In particular, the foundation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change at the end of the 1980s played a major role for the further enhancement of efforts in the field of climate change sciences. However, to understand the interaction of the worldwide coordination of climate change sciences as well as the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and its consequences, it is worthwhile to take a look at the self-conception of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's tasks and work. This paper gives an idea of the history of international climate change science, its representation in public discourse and the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change by comprehensively illustrating its tasks, organization and self-image. Furthermore, the article tries to argue that the hitherto accepted concept of science followed within this body fails to integrate the idea of scientific ethics. It can be concluded that the conception of science represented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has heavily influenced worldwide attention to climate change, its becoming part of the political agenda as well as the ethical consequences.
The Gulf countries are largely dependent on exporting oil and natural gas for their national budgets. They mainly use domestic fossil fuels for their domestic energy supply. In spite of favorable geographic conditions, especially for solar energy, renewable energies are still a niche application. Abu Dhabi, besides Dubai, the most important emirate in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), has now started a process of "transforming oil wealth into renewable energy leadership", and has set the long-term goal of a "transition from a 20th Century, carbon-based economy into a 21st Century sustainable economy." This article is a case study about "Masdar City", a planned carbon-neutral town in Abu Dhabi. The article describes the key characteristics of Masdar City, analyses the drivers behind the project, identifies the main actors for its implementation, and seeks obstacles to creation and development as well as the policy behind Masdar City. Finally, a first judgment of possible diffusion effects of the project is done.
Renewable energy can become the major energy supply option in low-carbon energy economies. Disruptive transformations in all energy systems are necessary for tapping widely available renewable energy resources. Organizing the energy transition from non-sustainable to renewable energy is often described as the major challenge of the first half of the 21st century. Technological innovation, the economy (costs and prices) and policies have to be aligned to achieve full renewable energy potentials, and barriers impeding that growth need to be removed. These issues are also covered by IPCC's special report on renewable energy and climate change to be completed in 2010. This article focuses on the interrelations among the drivers. It clarifies definitions of costs and prices, and of barriers. After reviewing how the third and fourth assessment reports of IPCC cover mitigation potentials and commenting on definitions of renewable energy potentials in the literature, we propose a consistent set of potentials of renewable energy supplies.
Preventing the worst consequences of climate change would require that GHG emissions be reduced to levels near zero by the middle of the century. To respond to such a daunting challenge, we need to rethink and redesign the currently highly energy-dependent infrastructures of industrial societies and particularly the urban infrastructures to become low- or even zero-carbon cities. Sustainable urban infrastructures need technology. In this paper focused on Western European Cities, we discuss a wide set of technologies in the fields of building, energy and transport infrastructures that can significantly contribute to a reduction of energy and/or GHG emissions and are already available or are in the pipeline. Based on the review of a recent study for the city of Munich, we then present how a mix of these technologies could reduce CO2-emissions by up to 90% for the metropolis of 1.3 million inhabitants and that this strategy could be economically attractive despite a high initial investment.
All of the residential buildings of a city like Munich could be entirely redesigned for EUR 200 per inhabitant annually, which is about one third of an average annual natural gas bill.
It is now widely recognized that effective communication and demand-side policies for alternative energy require sound knowledge of preferences and determinants of demand of the public and consumers. To date, public attitudes towards new transport technologies have been studied under very different conceptual frameworks. This paper gives an overview of the various conceptual frameworks and methodologies used, where four main approaches can be distinguished: general attitudinal surveys, risk perception studies, non-market economic valuation studies, and other approaches such as those based on semiotic theory. We then review the findings of the recent literature on acceptance, attitudes and preferences for hydrogen and fuelcell end-use technologies, focusing on vehicles. These studies are then contrasted with related research into alternative fuel vehicles. The paper finally discusses the main trends in research and avenues for further work in this field. We recommend, among other things, the use of approaches that build knowledge and familiarity with the technology prior to the exploration of attitudes, and the set up of studies that take a whole-systems perspective of hydrogen technologies and that look at hydrogen in the context of other competing clean technologies.
Biogas and bio-methane that are based on energy crops are renewable energy carriers and therefore potentially contribute to climate protection. However, significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from agricultural production processes must be considered. Among those, the production and use of fertilizer, and the resulting leaching of nitrous oxide (N2O), are crucial factors. This article provides an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) of biogas (i.e. bio-methane that has been upgraded and injected into the natural gas grid), taking into account the processes of fermentation, upgrading and injection to the grid for two different types of biogas plants. The analysis is based on different feedstocks from crop rotation systems for different locations in Germany. A special focus is on the sensitivity of assumptions of nitrous oxide emissions to overall GHG emissions. Much research exists on the measurement or modeling of the actual N2O emissions that result from farming processes. Since there is as yet no precise regional data, most analyses use tier-1 data from the IPCC national GHG inventories as a default. The present article coincides with recent research in indicating that this data varies at the regional level. However, it is not the scope of the article to evaluate the quality of existing data for N2O emissions, but to show the effects of different assumptions on the LCA of GHGs from bio-methane. Thus, a link between the provision of emission data and the practical implementation of biogas technology is provided. The main result is that the supply chain of substrates from agricultural processes appears to contribute the most to the GHG emissions of bio-methane. The "worst case" scenario where 5% of the nitrogen fertilizer used is emitted in form of N2O shows that the GHG mitigation potential of bio-methane versus natural gas is very small, so there is not much margin for error in the plant technology.
Hintergrund: Die Bezugsquellen und Transportwege von fossilem Erdgas werden sich in den kommenden beiden Dekaden diversifizieren. Veränderungen der Lieferstruktur, verbunden mit weiteren Transportentfernungen und dem Neubau von Pipelines sowie der verstärkte Einsatz von verflüssigtem Erdgas (LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas) sind zu erwarten. Entsprechend werden sich auch die vorgelagerten Prozessketten und die damit verknüpften THG-Emissionen verändern. Im Sinne einer korrekten und ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung der Lebenszyklusemissionen und weitgehender Treibhausgasminderungsziele, sind die vorgelagerten Emissionen eine nicht zu vernachlässigende Größe. Gleichzeitig wird Biomethan als Beimischung zum fossilen Erdgas an Bedeutung gewinnen. Obwohl seine Verbrennung als klimaneutral gewertet wird, sind die Prozesse zur Herstellung von Biomethan mit Emissionen verbunden.
Die Treibhausgasemissionen (THG) der Vorketten von in der EU eingesetzten Energieträgern werden in der neuen EU-Kraftstoffqualitätsrichtlinie (vom Dez. 2008) reguliert. Ihre Höhe und ihre Entwicklung wird für die klimapolitischen Diskussionen und politische Entscheidungen somit immer wichtiger.
Ziel: Vor dem Hintergrund der angesprochenen Aspekte sollen die zukünftige Entwicklung der Gasversorgung in Deutschland und die Veränderungen der vorgelagerten THG-Emissionen von Erdgas und Biomethan ermittelt werden. In zwei Szenarien werden die mit der Herstellung und dem Transport von Erdgas und Biomethan verknüpften Emissionen bis zum Jahr 2030 einschließlich des zu erwartenden technischen Optimierungspotenzials bilanziert. Mittels dieser Analyse können Einschätzungen der zukünftigen Emissionspfade und der durchschnittlichen Emissionen (Klimaqualität) des eingesetzten Gases (als Mischung fossiler und biogener Gase einschließlich der damit verbundenen Prozesskettenemissionen) gegeben werden. Diese können als Grundlage für energie- und klimapolitische Entscheidungen dienen.
Ergebnisse und Diskussion: Nach Erläuterung der Prozesskette von Biomethan werden die zu erwartenden technischen Entwicklungen der einzelnen Prozessschritte (Substratbereitstellung, Fermentierung, Aufbereitung, Gärrestnutzung) diskutiert und die Höhe der hiervon zu erwartenden Emissionen bilanziert. Basis sind Ergebnisse der wissenschaftlichen Begleitforschung des Wuppertal Instituts zur Einspeisung von Biomethan ins Erdgasnetz. Dabei gehen wir davon aus, dass die nächste Anlagengeneration "optimierte Technik" das aus heutiger Sicht bestehende Optimierungspotenzial des heutigen Stands der Technik ausschöpfen wird, sodass sich die spezifischen, auf den Heizwert des Biomethan bezogenen, THG-Emissionen der Vorkette von aktuell 27,8 t CO2-Äq/TJ auf 14,8 t CO2-Äq/TJ in 2030 fast halbieren werden.
Die zu erwartenden Emissionen der Erdgasprozesskette wurden in einem Vorgängerartikel bereits im Detail analysiert. Bei der Förderung und der Transportinfrastruktur ist ebenfalls eine Optimierung der Technik zu erwarten. Die dadurch erzielte Verringerung der spezifischen THG-Emissionen kann die aus den künftig längeren Transportstrecken und aufwendigen Produktionsprozessen resultierende Erhöhung ausgleichen.
Abschließend werden zwei Szenarien (Hoch- und Niedrigverbrauch) der künftigen Gasversorgung Deutschlands bis 2030 aufgestellt. Im Hochverbrauchszenario wird damit gerechnet, dass der Gaseinsatz in Deutschland um 17 % steigen wird. Im Niedrigverbrauchszenario wird er dagegen um etwa 17 % sinken. Gleichzeitig wird der Anteil von Biomethan am eingesetzten Gas auf 8 bzw. 12 % ansteigen. Die - direkten und indirekten - Treibhausgasemissionen der Gasnutzung in Deutschland werden im Niedrigverbrauchszenario um 25 %, d. h. überproportional von 215,4 Mio. t CO2-Äq auf 162,4 Mio. t CO2-Äq zurückgehen. Im Hochverbrauchsszenario steigen die Gesamtemissionen leicht um 7 % (auf 230,9 Mio. t CO2-Äq) an.
Schlussfolgerungen: Gasförmige Energieträger werden in den kommenden beiden Dekaden eine zentrale Säule der deutschen Energieversorgung bleiben. Insgesamt zeigt sich, dass die THG-Emissionen der Nutzung von Erdgas v. a. von den Verbrauchsmengen der Gasversorgung abhängig sind. Das heißt, dass sowohl aus klima- als auch aus energiepolitischer Sicht die Steigerung der Energieeffizienz ein zentraler Faktor ist. Daneben bestehen sowohl in der verstärkten Nutzung von Biomethan als auch in der weiteren Investition in emissionsoptimierte Technologien entlang der Vorketten signifikante Emissionsminderungspotenziale. Hierdurch kann die "Klimaqualität", d. h. die spezifische Treibhausgasemissionshöhe über alle Prozessstufen, des eingesetzten Gases deutlich verbessert werden. Die spezifischen Gesamtemissionen pro TJ eingesetzten Gases werden hierdurch um ca. 9 % von heute 63,3 t CO2-Äq pro TJ auf etwa 54,5 t/TJ sinken. Entscheidend ist hierfür der verstärkte Einsatz von Biomethan, dessen Verbrennung aufgrund der biogenen Herkunft des Kohlenstoffs weitgehend klimaneutral ist (im Vergleich zu direkten Emissionen von 56 t CO2/TJ bei der Verbrennung von Erdgas oder 111 t CO2/TJ bei z. B. Braunkohle). Die Vorteile der gasförmigen Energieträger in der Klimaqualität und effizienten Nutzung werden - insbesondere auch in der künftig zu erwartenden Beimischung von Biomethan - auch zukünftig Bestand haben.